Category Archives: Psycho-physiological Bases Of Engineering

Defining and measuring mathematically the level of knowledge, ignorance and uncertainty

September 29, 2023 15:06 ,

Fujun Hou, Evangelos Triantaphyllou, Juri Yanase, Knowledge, ignorance, and uncertainty: An investigation from the perspective of some differential equations, Expert Systems with Applications, Volume 191, 2022 DOI: 10.1016/j.eswa.2021.116325.

People use knowledge on several cognitive tasks such as when they recognize objects, rank entities such as the alternatives in multi-criteria decision making, or for classification tasks of decision making / expert / intelligent systems. When people have sufficient relevant knowledge, they can make well-distinctive assessments among entities. Otherwise, they may exhibit some uncertainty. This paper establishes two differential equations, of which one is for the interaction between the knowledge level and the uncertainty level, and the other is for the interaction between the ignorance level and the uncertainty level. By solving these two differential equations under certain boundary conditions, one can derive that the proposed knowledge level indicator is equivalent to Wierman’s knowledge granularity measure up to a constant (exactly, ln2). Moreover, the knowledge level indicator and the ignorance level indicator are found to be in a complementary relationship with each other. That is, more knowledge implies less ignorance, and vice-versa. The results of this study bridge a critical gap that exists in the understanding of the concepts of knowledge and ignorance.

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On how the exploitation-exploration dicotomy shifts to exploitation as humans get older

September 25, 2023 15:05 ,

R. Nathan Spreng, Gary R. Turner, From exploration to exploitation: a shifting mental mode in late life development, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Volume 25, Issue 12, 2021 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.09.0010.

Changes in cognition, affect, and brain function combine to promote a shift in the nature of mentation in older adulthood, favoring exploitation of prior knowledge over exploratory search as the starting point for thought and action. Age-related exploitation biases result from the accumulation of prior knowledge, reduced cognitive control, and a shift toward affective goals. These are accompanied by changes in cortical networks, as well as attention and reward circuits. By incorporating these factors into a unified account, the exploration-to-exploitation shift offers an integrative model of cognitive, affective, and brain aging. Here, we review evidence for this model, identify determinants and consequences, and survey the challenges and opportunities posed by an exploitation-biased mental mode in later life.

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On how physical movements shape the perception of time

September 15, 2023 09:28 ,

Rose De Kock, Keri Anne Gladhill, Minaz Numa Ali, Wilsaan Mychal Joiner, Martin Wiener, How movements shape the perception of time, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Volume 25, Issue 11, 2021, Pages 950-963 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.08.002.

In order to keep up with a changing environment, mobile organisms must be capable of deciding both where and when to move. This precision necessitates a strong sense of time, as otherwise we would fail in many of our movement goals. Yet, despite this intrinsic link, only recently have researchers begun to understand how these two features interact. Primarily, two effects have been observed: movements can bias time estimates, but they can also make them more precise. Here we review this literature and propose that both effects can be explained by a Bayesian cue combination framework, in which movement itself affords the most precise representation of time, which can influence perception in either feedforward or active sensing modes.

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Solving the “self-recognition on a mirror” problem for robots

July 21, 2023 09:49 ,

Arianna Pipitone, Antonio Chella, Robot passes the mirror test by inner speech, . Robotics and Autonomous Systems, Volume 144, 2021 DOI: 10.1016/j.robot.2021.103838.

The mirror test is a well-known task in Robotics. The existing strategies are based on kinesthetic-visual matching techniques and manipulate perceptual and motion data. The proposed work attempts to demonstrate that it is possible to implement a robust robotic self-recognition method by the inner speech, i.e. the self-dialogue that enables reasoning on symbolic information. The robot self-talks and conceptually reasons on the symbolic forms of signals, and infers if the robot it sees in the mirror is itself or not. The idea is supported by the existing literature in psychology, where the importance of inner speech in self-reflection and self-concept emergence for solving the mirror test was empirically demonstrated.

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Trying to reach general AI through just decision-making (rewards) instead of using a diversity of paradigms

July 21, 2023 08:37 ,

avid Silver, Satinder Singh, Doina Precup, Richard S. Sutton, Reward is enough, . Artificial Intelligence, Volume 299, 2021 DOI: 10.1016/j.artint.2021.103535.

In this article we hypothesise that intelligence, and its associated abilities, can be understood as subserving the maximisation of reward. Accordingly, reward is enough to drive behaviour that exhibits abilities studied in natural and artificial intelligence, including knowledge, learning, perception, social intelligence, language, generalisation and imitation. This is in contrast to the view that specialised problem formulations are needed for each ability, based on other signals or objectives. Furthermore, we suggest that agents that learn through trial and error experience to maximise reward could learn behaviour that exhibits most if not all of these abilities, and therefore that powerful reinforcement learning agents could constitute a solution to artificial general intelligence.

NOTES:

  • The computational and physical limitations of the agent to cope with a too complex world is the main reason to use learning instead of pre-built knowledge (evolution): it allows the agent to focus on acquiring skills for its own circumstances first, that are the most important for it.
  • Argument why classification (supervised learning) is less powerful and efficient than RL.
  • Same with multi-agent settings vs. one agent confronted with a single complex environment (containing other agents).
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A nice survey on active learning, in particular for robotics

July 17, 2023 09:10 ,

Annalisa T. Taylor, Thomas A. Berrueta, Todd D. Murphey, Active learning in robotics: A review of control principles, . Mechatronics, Volume 77, 2021 DOI: 10.1016/j.mechatronics.2021.102576.

Active learning is a decision-making process. In both abstract and physical settings, active learning demands
both analysis and action. This is a review of active learning in robotics, focusing on methods amenable to
the demands of embodied learning systems. Robots must be able to learn efficiently and flexibly through
continuous online deployment. This poses a distinct set of control-oriented challenges??one must choose
suitable measures as objectives, synthesize real-time control, and produce analyses that guarantee performance
and safety with limited knowledge of the environment or robot itself. In this work, we survey the fundamental
components of robotic active learning systems. We discuss classes of learning tasks that robots typically
encounter, measures with which they gauge the information content of observations, and algorithms for
generating action plans. Moreover, we provide a variety of examples ?? from environmental mapping to
nonparametric shape estimation ?? that highlight the qualitative differences between learning tasks, information
measures, and control techniques. We conclude with a discussion of control-oriented open challenges, including
safety-constrained learning and distributed learning.

NOTES:

  • RL can be considered one of the areas within computational learning theory, that usually ignore physical embodiment aspects of the learning agent. However, that is only so when RL explores through decision-making, not when it explores randomly, without much purpose of enhancing learning itself through its actions.
  • RL caveats (particularly Deep RL): their large data requirements, lack of generalizability between tasks, as well as their inability to learn incrementally and guarantee
    safety.
  • Bayesian filters can be seen as learner systems: they learn parameters of objects (pose) or environments (maps) aided by some models. However, they are more active learners when they use the robot actions to improve that parameter learning.
  • Gaussian processes can be effective in learning those models when no parameterical form is available or much first-principle knowledge, for instance, when the robot has to learn the model only observing a small part of the environment (local).
  • Entropy/information, Fisher’s information (conditional information) and ergodicity are the main ways of measuring information gain in active learning.
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The Evolutionary History of Brains for Numbers

July 11, 2023 09:43 ,

Andreas Nieder, The Evolutionary History of Brains for Numbers, . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Volume 25, Issue 7, 2021, Pages 608-621 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.03.012.

Humans and other animals share a number sense’, an intuitive understanding of countable quantities. Having evolved independent from one another for hundreds of millions of years, the brains of these diverse species, including monkeys, crows, zebrafishes, bees, and squids, differ radically. However, in all vertebrates investigated, the pallium of the telencephalon has been implicated in number processing. This suggests that properties of the telencephalon make it ideally suited to host number representations that evolved by convergent evolution as a result of common selection pressures. In addition, promising candidate regions in the brains of invertebrates, such as insects, spiders, and cephalopods, can be identified, opening the possibility of even deeper commonalities for number sense.

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Including attention mechanisms in long-short term memory

July 11, 2023 09:06 ,

Lin, X., Zhong, G., Chen, K. et al, Attention-Augmented Machine Memory, . Cogn Comput 13, 751–760 (2021) DOI: 10.1007/s12559-021-09854-5.

Attention mechanism plays an important role in the perception and cognition of human beings. Among others, many machine learning models have been developed to memorize the sequential data, such as the Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network and its extensions. However, due to lack of the attention mechanism, they cannot pay special attention to the important parts of the sequences. In this paper, we present a novel machine learning method called attention-augmented machine memory (AAMM). It seamlessly integrates the attention mechanism into the memory cell of LSTM. As a result, it facilitates the network to focus on valuable information in the sequences and ignore irrelevant information during its learning. We have conducted experiments on two sequence classification tasks for pattern classification and sentiment analysis, respectively. The experimental results demonstrate the advantages of AAMM over LSTM and some other related approaches. Hence, AAMM can be considered as a substitute of LSTM in the sequence learning applications.

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Physiological bases of navigation

July 11, 2023 08:54 ,

Eva Zita Patai, Hugo J. Spiers, The Versatile Wayfinder: Prefrontal Contributions to Spatial Navigation, . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Volume 25, Issue 6, 2021, Pages 520-533 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.010.

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) supports decision-making, goal tracking, and planning. Spatial navigation is a behavior that taxes these cognitive processes, yet the role of the PFC in models of navigation has been largely overlooked. In humans, activity in dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC) and ventrolateral PFC (vlPFC) during detours, reveal a role in inhibition and replanning. Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) is implicated in planning and spontaneous internally-generated changes of route. Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) integrates representations of the environment with the value of actions, providing a ‘map’ of possible decisions. In rodents, medial frontal areas interact with hippocampus during spatial decisions and switching between navigation strategies. In reviewing these advances, we provide a framework for how different prefrontal regions may contribute to different stages of navigation.

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Studying magician tricks to understand decision making and how to influence it

July 10, 2023 08:31 ,

Alice Pailhès, Gustav Kuhn, Mind Control Tricks: Magicians’ Forcing and Free Will, . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Volume 25, Issue 5, 2021, Pages 338-341 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.001.

A new research program has recently emerged that investigates magicians’ mind control tricks, also called forces. This research highlights the psychological processes that underpin decision-making, illustrates the ease by which our decisions can be covertly influenced, and helps answer questions about our sense of free will and agency over choices.

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